Nature of rāga

"That which is a special dhwani (tune), is bedecked with swara (notes) and varna and is colorful or delightful to the minds of the people, is said to be rāga" - Matanga in the Brihaddeshi.
The basic mode of reference in modern Hindustani practice (known commonly as the shuddha - basic - form) is a set which is equivalent to the Western Ionian mode — this is called Bilawal thaat in Hindustani music (the Carnatic analogue would be Sankarabharanam). In both systems, the ground (or tonic), Shadja, Sa, and a pure fifth above, Pancham, Pa, are fixed and essentially sacrosanct tones. In the Hindustani system, in a given seven-tone mode, the second, third, sixth, and seventh notes can be natural (shuddha, lit. 'pure') or flat (komal, 'soft') but never sharp, and the fourth note can be natural or sharp (tivra) but never flat, making up the twelve notes in the Western equal tempered chromatic scale (Western enharmonic pitch equivalences like, for example, A♯ and B♭ do not apply; e.g. Re tivra may, to a Western musician appear enharmonic to Ga shuddha in that system, but in practice is not.) A Western-style C scale could therefore theoretically have the notes C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, A, B♭, B.

The Carnatic system has three versions — a lower, medium, and higher form — of all the notes except Sa, Ma and Pa. Ma has two versions (lower and higher), while Sa and Pa are invariant. Rāgas can also specify microtonal changes to this scale: a flatter second, a sharper seventh, and so forth. Tradition has it that the octave consists of (a division into) 22 microtones ("śrutis"). Furthermore, individual performers treat pitches quite differently, and the precise intonation of a given note depends on melodic context. There is no absolute pitch (such as the modern western standard A = 440 Hz); instead, each performance simply picks a ground note, which also serves as the drone, and the other scale degrees follow relative to the ground note. The Carnatic system embarks from a much different shuddha (fundamental) scalar formation, that is, shuddha here is the lowest-pitched swara.

By comparison, using the common tonic "C" for a western musician:

Carnatic		Hindustani	Western E.T.
Sa		Sa	"C"
Shuddha Ri	"Ri 1"	Komal Re	"D♭"
Chatusruti Ri	"Ri 2"	Shuddha Re	"D"
Shatsruti Ri	"Ri 3"	(Komal Ga)	"D♯"
Shuddha Ga	"Ga 1"	(Shuddha Re)	"D"
Sadharana Ga	"Ga 2"	Komal Ga	"E♭"
Antara Ga	"Ga 3"	Shuddha Ga	"E"
Shuddha Ma	"Ma 1"	Shuddha Ma	"F"
Prati Ma	"Ma 2"	Teevra Ma	"F♯"
Pa		Pa	"G"
Shuddha Dha	"Dha 1"	Komal Dha	"A♭"
Chatusruti Dha	"Dha 2"	Shuddha Dha	"A"
Shatsruti Dha	"Dha 3"	(Komal Ni)	"A♯"
Shuddha Ni	"Ni 1"	(Shuddha Dha)	"A"
Kaisika Ni	"Ni 2"	Komal Ni	"B♭"
Kakali Ni	"Ni 3"	Shuddha Ni	"B"

Rāgas and their seasons

Many Hindustani (North Indian) rāgas are prescribed a time of day or a season. When performed at the suggested time, the rāga has its maximum effect. During the monsoon, for example, many of the Malhar group of rāgas, which are associated with the monsoon and ascribed the magical power to bring rain, are performed. However, these prescriptions are not strictly followed, especially since modern concerts are generally held in the evening. There has also been a growing tendency over the last century for North Indian musicians to adopt South Indian rāgas, which do not come with any particular time associated with them. The result of these various influences is that there is increasing flexibility as to when rāgas may be performed.

Notations

Although notes are an important part of rāga practice, they alone do not make the rāga. A rāga is more than a scale. Many rāgas share the same scale. The underlying scale may have five, six or seven tones made up of swaras. Rāgas that have five swaras are called audava (औडव) rāgas; those with six, shaadava (षाडव); and with seven, sampoorna (संपूर्ण) (Sanskrit for 'complete'). Those rāgas that do not follow the strict ascending or descending order of swaras are called vakra (वक्र) ('crooked') rāgas.
It is the mood of the rāga that is more important than the notes it comprises. For example, Rāga Darbari Kanada and Rāga Jaunpuri share the same notes but are entirely different in their renderings.

Northern and southern differences

The two streams of Indian classical music, Carnatic music and Hindustani music, have independent sets of rāgas. There is some overlap, but more "false friendship" (where rāga names overlap, but rāga form does not). In north India, the rāgas have been categorised into ten thaats or parent scales (by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, 1860-1936); South India uses an older, more systematic classification scheme called the melakarta classification, with 72 parent (melakarta) rāgas. Overall there is a greater identification of rāga with scale in the south than in the north, where such an identification is impossible. Rāgas in north Indian music system follow the 'law of consonances' established by Bharata in his Natyashastra, which does not tolerate deviation even at the shruti level.

As rāgas were transmitted orally from teacher to student, some rāgas can vary greatly across regions, traditions and styles. There have been efforts to codify and standardise rāga performance in theory from their first mention in Matanga's Brihaddeshi (c. tenth century).

Carnatic rāga

In Carnatic music, rāgas are classified as Janaka rāgas and Janya rāgas. Janaka rāgas are the rāgas from which the Janya rāgas are created. Janaka rāgas are grouped together using a scheme called Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta rāgas. A Melakarta rāga is one which has all seven notes in both the ārōhanam (ascending scale) and avarōhanam (descending scale). Some Melakarta rāgas are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam and Todi.

Janya rāgas are derived from the Janaka rāgas using a combination of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent rāga. Some janya rāgas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam and Kambhoji. See the full List of Janya Ragas for more.

Each rāga has a definite collection and orders of swaras (the basic notes). In Carnatic music, there are 7 basic notes of which there are 12 varieties. The seven basic swarams of Carnatic music are: Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni.

Related rāgas

Even though Janya rāgas are subsets of Janaka rāgas in notation and representation, the differences between the child ragas are clear due to the differences like

some notes that figure more in a particular rāga compared to another, while other notes used sparingly
some notes may be sung with gamaka, stress, elongation, etc., in one rāga compared to other
specific phrases used and other phrases to be avoided in a rāga (so as to avoid deviation into another rāga's domain)
the scales of some ragas may contain at least one swara that does not figure in their janaka ragas. Such ragas are termed as bhashanga ragas. Ragas such as Bhairavi, Kambodhi, Bilahari, Devagandhari, and Neelambari fall under this category.
The effect of the rāgas are different from each other, even if they notationally use same swarams (or subset of swarams between each other) due to above subjective differences related to bhava and rasa (mood caused in the listener). The artists have to ensure the same when elaborating on a rāga, as has been followed and expected on each rāga, without digressing into the phrases of another related rāga. As we all know, science and notations cannot fully represent emotions and feelings.

Rāga-rāgini

The rāga-rāgini scheme is an old classification scheme used from the 14th century to the 19th century. It usually consists of 6 'male' rāgas each with 6 'wives'(rāginis) and a number of sons (putras) and even 'daughters-in-law'. As it did not agree with various other schemes, and the 'related' rāgas had very little or no similarity, the rāga-rāgini scheme is no longer very popular.

Rāgas and rāginis were often pictured as Hindu gods, Rajput princes and aristocratic women in an eternal cycle of love, longing and fulfilment.

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Raga Darbari Kanada has often been described as the Emperor of Ragas and the Raga of Emperors. These descriptions recall the raga’s association with Miya Tansen at Akbar’s court, and the majesty of the Mughal Empire at its zenith. But, such imagery could not have either surfaced, or survived through the centuries, if it had not also been supported by the melodic character of the raga.

The key to the majestic aloofness of the raga lies in the ponderous deliberateness with which it has to be rendered. This “ponderous deliberateness” of musical expression owes itself primarily to the “andolit” (oscillated) treatment of two swaras – komal Ga, and komal Dh – in the ascent as well as the descent. These two oscillations are fundamental to the sculpting of the two phrases which virtually define the melodic personality of Darbari Kanada – [g M R] and [d n P].

These oscillations around (komal) Ga and Dh swaras define a very specific treatment or intonation of these swaras in Darbari. Some authorities even believe that Darbari does not use the common (komal) Ga and Dh pitch-ratios to base-Sa. Instead, it uses their suppressed micro-swaras (shrutis). According to this view, these suppressed micro-swaras are accessible only as suggestions arising from an oscillation between the natural Re and the flat Ga (for komal Ga) and between Pa and the flat Dh (for komal Dh).

In imparting a sensitivity to these nuances of Darbari Kanada to their disciples, traditionally trained Gurus have often used very obscure language and imagery. The logic of these oscillations is, however, easily understood through acoustic principles -- essentially, the tonal geometry of the two pivotal phrases of the raga: g-M-R and d-n-P.

The first and last swaras in these phrases, Re-Pa and Ma-Ni, are in perfect first-fourth correspondence with a ratio of 1.333 between them. But, the linking swaras, (komal) Ga and (komal) Dh are only in near-perfect correspondence with a ratio of 1.367 between them.

To achieve a symmetry between the lower and upper halves of the Darbari Kanada scale, the two pivotal phrases need to be in perfect phraseological congruence. This is not possible until (komal) Ga and (komal) Dh are brought into perfect acoustic correspondence with each other.

The oscillated treatment of (komal) Ga and Dh explores the relevant microtonal regions for the possibility of tonal correspondence and phraseological congruence. The melodic soul of the raga expresses itself in these explorations.

The aesthetic demands of this tonal geometry might explain why great musicians often favour slow tempo renditions in this raga, and avoid the flattening out of the prescribed oscillations in ultra high-density melodic execution.

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A nonagenarian, aesthete and scholar of high repute, M.A.Sheikh has been associated with the musical circles of Lahore for almost 70 years and has seen profound changes taking place to classical music. "Yaadein" or Memories is a reflection of M.A. Sheikh's memorable moments in classical music. In his fourth article of Yaadein, M.A. Sheikh writes on an historic ceremony known as “shakkar” involving the late Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, paying homage to Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan and Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan at the Takia Meerasian in Lahore

Lahore in 1932/33 was a peaceful city marked by mutual brotherhood and simple living. Commonly referred as to the “City of Gardens”, Lahore was devoid of today’s hustle bustle, materialism and pollution filled atmosphere. The main transport system consisted of cycles and tongas whilst the sight of cars plying the city was extremely rare. The pursuits of wrestling and kite flying were amongst the favourite pastimes of the residents, whilst monuments like the Shalimar gardens and Jahangir’s tomb were popular places for picnics and relaxation. Music was considered an integral feature of the city’s cultural activities with countless baithaks, regular music concerts and recorded music of Zohra Bai Agrewali, Bhai Chaila, Maujuddin Khan and others being heard in the main shopping centres.

In these days a grand function was held at the Takia Meerasian, Chamberlaine Road, outside Mocchi Gate Lahore in which Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan confirmed his ties with the Patiala gharana through a ceremony known as “shakkar”, in which he offered his allegiance to Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan and Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan, the scions of the Patiala Gharana.

It was perhaps the month of October and about 1pm that the music lovers of Lahore started gathering at the “Takia”, by the evening the crowd swelled to over a thousand. The “Takia” was profusely decorated with buntings, carpets and flowers. Large trays filled with sweets were at hand and we could smell the beautiful aroma of food being cooked. The people were excited and embraced each other with greetings and an atmosphere of cheerfulness pervaded all over. Those who were present on this occasion with me were music directors Khawaja Khurshid Anwar and Feroze Nizami, Syed Shabbir Hussain Shah, film actor Gul Zaman, vocalist Ustad Chotey Ghulam Ali Khan, and sarangi player Ustad Nazim Ali Khan.

Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan and Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan were both sitting at a specially created dais, which was decorated with flowers, carpets, white sheets, and bolsters. A sarangi, tanpura and tabla were placed close by. Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan was wearing an achkan shining with gold embroidery, a white chooridar pajama, a black folding cap and a red scarf. Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan on the other hand was attired in a dark brown suit, which was designed as a polo outfit with bulging trousers and a short coat with four pockets. Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan was wearing a sprawling white turban, a loose white shirt with a beautiful scarf and a white dhoti.

The ceremony started with the words “Bismillah Sharif” and tying of the “gandha” to Bade Ghulam Ali Khan by the two ustads. This was followed by the distribution of sweets amongst the two ustads and various disciples. Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan presented the two maestros with gifts and money known as the “nazarana”. Innumerable people then followed by presenting nazaranas to the two ustads. There was vociferous clapping and loud shouts of greetings all around. A little later the music concert started. Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan sang raag Marwa for about one hour and the audience was completely overwhelmed with his pure imagery of raag, vigorous tonal variations, inimitable flow of convoluted phraseology and unique rhythmic control. Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan and Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan were also requested to perform but they politely declined.

This unforgettable ceremony is still recalled by many people, in Punjabi musical parlance it is known as “shakkar” and shares similar traits to the traditional “gandha bandhan” ceremony. The gandha bandhan ceremony is core to the lifelong traditional teacher – student relationship necessary to learning the musical arts in the Indian sub-continent. The ceremony is conducted by the teacher tying a thread (gandha) around the student’s wrist and certifies that the student has become a formal disciple and ready to show commitment in learning music. The union is not just from a musical sense but involves a spiritual attachment between the teacher and student.

The shakkar ceremony on the other hand, is only conducted when the disciple achieves a high level of musical proficiency. It is a celebration of the student’s achievement and enables the student to pay homage to his teachers and fellow members of the gharana in the form of gifts and monetary amounts.

I consider it an honour and privilege to have been present on this historical occasion and at the request of Ustad Fateh Ali Khan of the Patiala gharana and son of Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan have recorded details of the mentioned above ceremony in a video interview. Some years before his death, Ustad Munawar Ali Khan, the son of Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan visited Lahore and complained to Mr. Hayat Ahmed Khan the Secretary General of the All Pakistan Music Conference Lahore that there was great confusion about the incident as a lot of people held the view that his father was only a disciple of Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan and not of Ustad Akhtar Hussain Khan. Consequently a meeting was arranged at the residence of Mr. Hayat Ahmed Khan in which I personally explained my eyewitness account of this historic ceremony. He was convinced and stated that he would set the record straight on his return to India. However in a recent comprehensive book written by Mrs Malti Gilani and Qurat-ul-ain Haider titled Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, His Life and Music, published by Harman House Delhi in 2003, no mention whatsoever has been made of this ceremony, which is deeply regretful.
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Saqib Razaq writes on Patiala gharana's Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan. The legendary vocalist who made a lasting impression on the khayal gayaki of the Indian sub-continent.

There have only been a handful of musicians whose legacy has stood strong over the course of time and represented by the future generation of musicians. One such individual was the late Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan whose name is synonymous with the Patiala gharana. The contributions made by the maestro over the course of his career totally revolutionised Hindustani classical music and helped to establish the Patiala gharana as a major proponent of khayal gayaki.

Born in Patiala during the last decade of the 19th century, Ashiq Ali Khan, was the son of Patiala gharana co-founder Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. Ustad Fateh Ali Khan along with Ustad Ali Bukhsh Khan formed the basis of the Patiala tradition of khayal singing. The duo, popularly known as Alliya- Fattu were awarded the respective titles of General and Colonel by Lord Elgan, Viceroy of India during the mid 19th century.

Having lost his father during childhood, Ashiq Ali Khan could only learn the basic elements of classical music before being placed under the guidance of Ustad Ali Bukhsh Khan. This apprenticeship did not last long either, as the young Ashiq Ali Khan, deprived of the watchful eye of his father ran away from home. He spent an extensive period wandering from place to place before being persuaded by Sardar Bai, a senior disciple of his father, to stay with her.

Sardar Bai adopted the young boy and imparted the musical knowledge she had gained from her mentor. Ashiq Ali Khan stayed with Sardar Bai for seven years before spending a considering period travelling in the regions of Punjab and Sindh. It was during his stay in Sukkur, he fell into bad company and developed a liking for opium, hashish and alcohol. His addiction to opium was so extreme, that it resulted in his vocal chords being severely damaged.

Even during his teenage years, Ashiq Ali Khan was not seriously inclined towards music and would perform light music occasionally solely to feed his opium addiction. The real change to his musical career came when he overheard sarcastic comments from a number of musicians mocking him for singing ghazals and kafis despite being the son of the great Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. These comments acted as an impetus for Ashiq Ali Khan to pursue music on a serious note. He sought the guidance of his maternal uncle Ustad Amir Khan of Multan and the prolific Patiala gharana composer Ustad Alladiya Khan alias Meherban Khan, both senior disciples of Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. Both maestros provided him with rigorous training including a number of rare compositions of the Patiala gharana. The maestro is also said to have consulted Ustad Natthu Khan Patialawale and Imam Din Khan of Sialkot. Through a dedicated period of arduous practice lasting approximately five years, Ashiq Ali Khan began to perform classical music and created a storm amongst musicians and listeners alike, establishing himself amongst the top most vocalists of the Indian sub-continent.

In describing Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan’s performance style, one has to look towards one word “mushkilaat” or complexity. He is widely regarded as the ultimate statement of “tayyari” and “layakari” by most of the vocalists of the Punjab region. Due to the deformity in his voice, Ashiq Ali Khan concentrated on the rhythmic elements of classical music. His style was extremely difficult, marked by the heavy usage of complicated taan patterns coupled with fast sargams. He introduced the concept of layakari within the khayal performance by employing tihaees into his performances, commonly starting from any point in the rhythm cycle and sharply ending on the sum. This performance style created a flurry in the regions of Punjab and Sindh and became the normal style of khayal presentation, so much so that even vocalists considered as Ashiq Ali Khan’s rivals adopted this difficult style. Apart from the khayal, the ustad was a master at singing the Multani Kafi, a genre he adopted due to his extensive stay in Sukkur, Multan and Bahawalpur. Although Ashiq Ali Khan had a vast repertoire of raags, he is considered to be a master at rendering Bhairav Bahar, Multani, Madhuwanti, Puriya Dhanasri and Darbari.

Click to hear Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan perform Multani Kafi

On Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan’s mastery over rhythm, Ustad Fateh Ali Khan of the Patiala gharana, recalled a mehfil he attended where the ustad performed Puriya Dhanasri accompanied by Ustad Inayati Khan on tabla. The khayal was set to the twelve beat rhythm cycle of drut Ek Taal. During the course of the performance, Ashiq Ali Khan unexpectedly arrived on the sum on the 12th beat, realising the shocked reaction of the audience, the ustad made the 12th beat the sum and kept on showering tihaees on the final beat of the rhythm cycle.

Despite his addiction to opium and hashish, Ashiq Ali Khan led a life of simplicity. The maestro had a religious bent and strong inclination towards Sufism, spending five years during his youth at the shrine of Shahbaz Qalandar in Sehwan, Sindh. He was never interested in material gains and enjoyed travelling, never remaining in one place for any great length of time. The maestro had a sharp taste for clothes, often preferring to wear a suit and tie during performances. Although there were many offers for him to become a court musician, he preferred not to attach himself under the services of a Maharajah or Nawab. Apart from a brief period of employment under the services of the Maharajah of Patiala, Ashiq Ali Khan preferred to perform in informal mehfils and baithaks, rather than the plush settings of nobility.

The maestro was a man of strong principles when it came to music and believed in retaining the integrity of the Patiala style. He would always respond to a challenge brought upon by rival vocalists and actively took part in musical dungals (form of competition between musicians). Senior citizens of Lahore can still recall his performances at the Takia Meerasian in Mochi Gate, Lahore and memorable dungals with the likes of Ustad Tawakkal Hussain Khan, Ustad Pyare Khan and Ustad Chotay Ghulam Ali Khan.

Former advisor to the Classical Music Research Cell, Radio Pakistan, M.A. Sheikh had many opportunities to hear Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan and recalled a memorable mehfil taken place at the famous music director Khurshid Anwar’s residence featuring the maestro and his protégé Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan. Ashiq Ali Khan started the afternoon performance with a thumri in raag Khamaj with Bade Ghulam Ali Khan providing vocal support. During the course of the performance Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan became emotionally overwhelmed and excused himself from the performance, explaining that the exquisite manner at which the maestro was rendering the thumri he was no longer able to perform with him. Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan followed the thumri with a splendid presentation of raag Multani.

Another interesting anecdote concerning the maestro recalled by a number of senior Lahoris is the time when there were rumours circulating of Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan contemplating on becoming the disciple of Ustad Abdul Waheed Khan, the celebrated vocalist of the Kirana gharana. On hearing this, Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan is said to have become very angry that a disciple of his gharana was contemplating on shifting loyalties. So much so that he went to Abdul Waheed Khan’s residence in Lahore and openly challenged him to a duel. Ustad Abdul Waheed Khan being a complete gentleman is said to have calmed the situation down.

In an era when most classical musicians were against lending their voice on radio and the recording industry, Ashiq Ali Khan actively broadcasted on All India Radio and recorded for the major gramophone companies. His gramophone records are now considered collector’s items and his duets with Ustad Umeed Ali Khan featuring raags Lalit and Shyam Kalyan are regarded as historic pieces of recorded Hindustani classical music.

Click to hear Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan and Ustad Umeed Ali Khan perform raag Lalit

Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan was also a fine teacher and responsible for grooming some of the great names of Hindustani classical music who have become standard bearers of their respective fields. Amongst his numerous disciples, notable names are of Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, tabla maestro Ustad Allah Rakha, Kabul’s Ustad Mohammad Hussain Sarhang, Mukhtar Begum, ghazal singer Farida Khanum, Zahida Parveen, Ustad Hussain Bukhsh Dhadhi and Chotey Ashiq Ali Khan. Apart from the above, vocalists of the calibre of Ustad Fateh Ali Khan, Ustad Salamat Ali Khan and Ustad Hussain Bukhsh Khan have openly acknowledged that they are strongly influenced by Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan.

Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan passed away childless in Lahore on 10th of March 1948 and is buried at the Takia Meerasian in Lahore. However, there is some disagreement from certain sources claiming that the actual year of his death was 1958. Even though it has been over fifty years since his death, the name of Ustad Ashiq Ali Khan is still remembered with great fervour and regarded as the ultimate statement of khayal gayaki amongst the vocalists of the Patiala gharana.

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